Method of manufacturing a lead acid cell paste and battery

ABSTRACT

An active paste for an lead-acid electrochemical cell which in a preferred embodiment includes tin; a method of manufacturing the same; and an electrochemical cell utilizing the same. The tin may be a tin sulfate, tin oxide, or metallic tin. The active paste sandwiches a primarily lead film which may, but need not, also include tin, to form a positive electrode. One or more positive electrodes are interleafed with a number of negative electrodes, separated by a separator material. The assembly is placed in a container and electrolyte is introduced. In alternate embodiments, the paste may include some combination of antimony, arsenic, germanium, indium, selenium, gallium, tellurium or other semiconductor materials with or without tin compounds.

This is a divisional application of application Ser. No. 08/717,279,filed on Sep. 20, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,820,639.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of lead-acid electrochemicalcells, and more particularly to a lead-acid cell paste formulationincluding tin compounds and methods of manufacturing and using the samein an electrochemical cell.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In known valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries, each positiveelectrode, sometimes called a positive "plate," includes a grid or foilsandwiched between an electrochemically active paste. A number ofpositive electrodes are alternately interleafed with a number ofnegative electrodes, sometimes called the negative "plate," with eachelectrode of one polarity separated from the adjacent electrode ofopposite polarity by a porous separator material, typically a glassmicrofiber mat. The cell is completed by adding electrolyte andsubjecting it to a formation charging process that activates it. Theentire apparatus is typically contained within a suitable plastic caseor other container.

The interface between the grid or foil and the paste is known as thecorrosion layer. While all of the chemistry/electrochemistry that takesplace here is not well understood, the establishment of a strong,well-defined corrosion layer is felt to be necessary for long cycle lifein lead-acid batteries. With some grid/foil alloys, in particular purelead, lead/calcium and lead/low tin compositions, there is notsufficient corrosion to establish a strong layer and in place of this aso-called "passivation" layer is created by alkaline oxidation of thegrid/foil surface. This corrosion/passivation layer is composedprimarily of PbO which is protected from neutralization by the sulfuricacid electrolyte by a layer of mixed lead compounds, but primarily leadsulfate. It acts as a perm-selective membrane that allows the underlyingPbO to exist in an alkaline environment. This corrosion/passivationlayer can act as an electrical insulator or at least reduce theconductivity between the grid/foil and the active material paste andthus can have a dramatic impact on the electrochemical properties of thecell. The corrosion/passivation layer appears to play an integral rolein at least two important characteristics of cell performance:self-discharge and cycle life.

The term "self discharge" refers to a series of different chemicalreactions within the cell that can reduce the storage time, or shelflife, due to consumption of electrolyte. The open-circuit voltagedirectly reflects the specific gravity, or concentration of electrolytewithin the cell, and it is also linearly proportional to dischargecapacity. Any self-discharge reaction that consumes electrolyte reducesboth storage time and discharge capacity. Corrosion of the positivegrid/foil on open-circuit stand is one mode of self discharge and doesconsume electrolyte. The term "cycle life" refers to the number ofusable cycles of discharge and recharge available from the cell. Thecycle life figure is dependent upon a number of conditions under whichit is determined, as well as the basic cell construction. For example, acell which achieves 80% of its initial amp-hour rating after 500 cyclesand reaches 50% after 1,000 cycles will have two different "cycle life"values, depending upon the criterion used for termination (80 or 50% ofinitial capacity). Another measure, related to cycle life, is totalusable capacity. This term refers to the sum of the cycles over the lifeof the cell multiplied by the amp-hours at each cycle. It can also beexpressed as the area under the curve produced by a plot of data showingdischarge capacity (in amp-hours) versus cycle number.

It can be appreciated that it is desirable for cells to have lowself-discharge--or voltage decay--rates. Low self-discharge rates allowfor longer storage times without complete loss of capacity. It can alsobe appreciated that it is desirable for cells to have long cycle life toallow many discharges and recharges before the cell is replaced. It issimilarly important that the total usable capacity be high, therebyimplying that the amp-hour capacity of the cell is reasonably constantover the bulk of the cycle life. The total usable capacity representsthe amount of useful work a cell can provide.

It can also be appreciated from the foregoing and common knowledgewithin the industry that establishment of a strong corrosion layerduring manufacture, formation and cycling will result in a cell withlong cycle life. It is also known that grid/foil alloys that produce astrong corrosion layer will be susceptible to ongoing corrosion thatwill reduce storage time. Conversely, it is known that grid/foil alloysthat do not have significant corrosion properties will result in thecreation of a passivation layer in the positive plate between thegrid/foil and the positive active material. This passivation layer willtend to protect the grid/foil from corrosion but, as mentioned, it willact to inhibit the passage of current during charging and thus can, whensevere, result in drastically short cycle life--a phenomenon termedpremature capacity loss, or PCL. It should be appreciated that all ofthe foregoing comments apply only to the positive plate in a lead-acidcell and not the negative plate.

Generally, both the grid/foil and the active material include lead invarious compositions along with smaller quantities of other materials.In particular, tin and tin compounds have been used in lead-acidelectrochemical cells. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,368,961 discloses acell having a grid alloy of about 2.5% tin. The use of tin in previouscells has generally been confined to having it in the grid/foil metallicalloy, as opposed to including some form of tin in the paste.

It has been found that the inclusion of small percentages of tin in thegrid/foil allows some control over the nature of thecorrosion/passivation layer that is formed, and thus a correspondingcontrol over the self-discharge and cycle life characteristics of thecell. This is apparently due to the fact that when the grid/foil surfacehas areas that are relatively high in tin content, either in the grainboundary areas or within the grains themselves, corrosion results intin, probably in the form of soluble tin(II) or insoluble SnO₂,migrating into the corrosion/passivation layer. This tin acts as aconductor to ameliorate the insulative effects of the passivation layerand to thereby enhance the conductivity, and thus the current flow,between the grid/foil and the positive active material. At tinpercentages at or below about 1.1-1.3%, true alloys are formed and thetin distribution is relatively uniform. Above about 1.3%, the solubilityof tin in lead is exceeded and the grain boundaries and the grainscontain relatively high concentrations of tin. In the former case,passivation layers tend to form and dominate cell performance due to thelow amount of corrosion of the grid/foil and, hence, low levels of tincompounds in the passivation layer. When the tin content of thegrid/foil metal exceeds the 1.3% level, corrosion of the high tin areastakes place and a true corrosion layer forms, with any passivation areasbeing sporadic or non-existent and, where formed, containing significantlevels of tin compounds. From the foregoing discussion, it should beappreciated that these two conditions involve trade-offs between goodself-discharge characteristics and good cycling performance. It shouldalso be appreciated that for tin contents of up to about 1.5% the layerbetween the grid/foil and the positive active material will be somecombination of corrosion and passivation structures, and not necessarilyexclusively one or the other.

For example, grids/foils having 2-3% tin levels (all percentage figuresbeing by weight) have certain desirable performance characteristics, incomparison with grids/foils such as pure lead or those having about 0.5%tin or less. In particular, a cell with a positive grid/foil with 2-3%tin provides very good cycling performance, i.e., the cell is able toproduce many discharge/recharge cycles with good capacity and a hightotal usable amp-hours. However, such a cell has an undesirably highself-discharge rate such that the storage time is unacceptable for mostcommercial applications. It is believed that this high self-dischargerate is due to corrosion of the high tin areas and the grain boundaries,thus consuming significant quantities of the sulfuric acid electrolyteand thereby increasing the rate of decrease of the open-circuit voltage.

Cells with grids/foils having about 1% tin or less exhibit much improvedself-discharge characteristics, but do not provide the excellent cyclelife of cells having grids/foils with 2-3% tin. Because they are truealloys, it is believed that the foils with 1% tin or less have a muchreduced corrosion rate compared to the foils with 23% tin. It isbelieved that this is due to the tin distribution being more or lesshomogeneous in the true alloys, with no areas of high tin concentrationsin the bodies of the grains and a low level of tin enrichment in thegrain boundaries (relative to 2-3% tin foils). The 1% tin (or less)foils thus reduce the self-discharge levels of the cells due to limitedtin corrosion, but because of this they do not release sufficient tininto the corrosion/passivation layer to improve markedly the cyclingperformance.

It would thus be desirable to perfect a cell with good self-dischargecharacteristics as well as good cycle life characteristics. Clearly, alow corrosion rate of the positive grid/foil is necessary for a lowself-discharge rate and, due to it being a long-term failure mode, longcycle life. Conversely, a positive foil with a relatively high corrosionrate apparently creates a corrosion layer that is very favorable forlong cycle life, but the corresponding self-discharge rate is high anddeterioration of the foil will eventually result in cycle life failure.Clearly, the tin content of the positive grid/foil is an importantvariable with respect to these two sets of characteristics. Moreover,the experiments in altering the tin content of the positive grid/foilsuggest that the design of a lead-acid cell involves a compromise, ortradeoff, of those characteristics. It is believed that no commerciallead-acid cell has previously been designed with both a very lowself-discharge rate and a very high cycle life.

Japanese patent publication 1979-49538 published Apr. 18, 1979 describesa "ready-to-use lead-acid battery pole plate" in which SnSO₄ or SnO wasadded to "non-activated paste material." This publication is directedtoward a system for reducing the storage deterioration in certain kindsof cells. Such deterioration, according to the publication, is due tothe production of non-conductive lead oxide between the pole(grid) andthe active material. This is now a well-understood phenomenon called"storage passivation" that occurs in the processing of so-called "drycharged" plates. The publication asserts that such deterioration isdiminished by the addition of SnSO₄ or SnO of less than 400 mesh to theactive material. The mechanism and chemistry of the asserted effect isnot specified. Moreover, the asserted advantages based on theexperimental results set forth in the publication are marginal at best.For example, the publication indicates that the voltage of a prior arttest cell was 1.55V when subjected to a high-rate discharge while thevoltages of the cells in accordance with the asserted invention were1.57 to 1.59V. Similarly, the "self-sustaining period" until the voltagedropped to 1.00V was 3 min. 54 sec. for the prior art test cells and 4min. 01 sec. to 4 min. 05 sec. for the cells in accordance with theasserted invention. This represents an improvement of only a fewpercent, which is probably well within the margin of error of theexperiment.

The experimental results in the Japanese publication were also less thandramatic for tests conducted after a 10 month storage period. The priorart test cell showed an initial voltage on high-current load of 1.23Vand a self-sustaining period until 1.00V of 3 min. 25 sec., while thecells in accordance with the asserted invention showed an initial loadvoltage of 1.27 to 1.50V and a self-sustaining period until 1.00V of 3min. 35 sec. to 3 min. 47 sec.

The Japanese publication teaches that the addition of SnSO₄ or SnO is tooccur prior to the addition of sulfuric acid:

SnSO₄ of varied particle sizes (200-400 meshes and under 400 meshes) wasadded to the lead powder in the ratio of 0.5-3% and was fully mixedbefore adding sulfuric acid.

The introduction of SnSO₄ or SnO prior to the introduction of sulfuricacid appears not to produce an effective paste, for reasons that are notfully understood. The very marginal improvement realized in theexperiments set forth in this Japanese publication appear to supportthat conclusion. In any event, the Japanese publication apparently neverissued as a patent in Japan, and no corresponding United States patenthas been located. Further, the publication teaches nothing about cyclingcharacteristics or self-discharge characteristics. Finally, the presentinvention does not depend upon a particular mesh size of SnSO₄ or SnO,as proper paste mixing and the resultant electrochemical effects aremore effective when the tin salt used is dissolved during mixing.

There have been many prior art methods with the goal of improving cycleperformance other than by altering the tin content of the positivegrid/foil. Such methods have included, for example, increasing the cellplate stack compression, using high-density active materials, usingthick paste layers and using conductive glass fibers in the positiveactive material. However, these prior-art methods include disadvantagessuch as difficulties in manufacturing and processing and high materialcosts.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention results in excellent cycling performance in termsof cycle life, maximum discharge capacity and total usable amp-hourswhile at the same time furnishing very low self-discharge levels (i.e.,long storage times). Preferably, tin, in the form of SnSO₄ or SnO ormetallic powdered tin, is introduced into the positive paste material.Different concentrations of tin may be used. It has been observed thatpaste having 0.3 weight percent soluble tin sulfate combined with platefoils having 1% tin produces good results. It is expected that addingtin to the paste will produce good results with foils having lower tincontents, or even with foils having-no tin whatsoever such assubstantially pure lead. Such foils have very low corrosion rates, andthus result in cells with low self-discharge rates. However, they alsotend to form a passivation layer between the foil and positive activematerial, resulting in very short cycle life. The invention may alsoutilize elements other than tin such as compounds containing antimony,arsenic, germanium, indium, selenium, gallium, tellurium or othersemiconductors or combinations thereof.

The addition of tin to the active material is believed to serve twopurposes that dramatically increase cycle life while having nodetrimental effect on self discharge. First, tin will be incorporatedwithin the passivation layer and by its semiconductor action will allowelectronic conduction through the normally poorly-conducting PbOpassivation layers. Second, the soluble tin distributed throughout thepositive active material will be converted to SnO₂ during formation.This SnO₂ will plate out on the electroactive lead dioxide activematerial and will provide a conductive "skeleton" that will result inslightly higher discharge capacity and longer cycle life.

It has been determined unexpectedly that the process by which the tin isincorporated into the paste is critical to improving the performance ofthe cell along the lines described above. Tin in the form of SnSO₄ orother forms must be introduced after the sulfuric acid is added to thepaste. It has been found that adding the tin prior to the introductionof sulfuric acid results in an unsuitable paste that performs poorlyrelative to pastes mixed by the introduction of tin after the additionof sulfuric acid. For paste mixes that do not require the addition ofsulfuric acid (i.e., so-called "unsulfated" pastes) the tin form usedcan be introduced at any time during mixing.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1-3 are test results of amp hours at various cycles for cells withtin-containing pastes according to the present invention.

FIGS. 4-6 are comparative test results for cells similar to the cells ofFIGS. 1-3, but with non-tin-containing pastes.

FIG. 7 is a diagrammatic cross section of alternating electrode positiveplates of an embodiment of the invention.

FIGS. 8-11 are test results for several cells in accordance with thepresent invention having positive electrodes with various tin content.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

With reference to FIG. 7, a lead-acid cell according to the presentinvention includes positive electrodes or "plates" 10, interleafed withnegative electrodes or "plates" 22. The positive and negative plates areseparated from one another by a separator 20. The electrodes may bearranged in any physical configuration with respect to one another.Commonly used configurations are to combine a series of stackedelectrode plates, or to spirally wind a continuous positive electrodewith a continuous negative electrode separated by a porous separator(known as the "spirally wound" configuration). The positive electrodesare electrically connected to a common positive terminal, and thenegative electrodes are electrically connected to a negative terminal.The combination is enclosed within a case containing electrolyte (notshown).

In one of the preferred embodiments of the invention, the cell is of theTMF brand thin metallic film type, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.5,368,961 by Juergens. The Juergens design utilizes very thin plates onthe order of 0.01 inches or less in thickness, with film thickness onthe order of 0.005 inches or less. (The "plate" is used to refer to themetallic film in combination with the paste coated thereon.) Juergenstype lead acid cells are characterized by exceptionally high dischargeand charge rates, and are well suited to the system of the presentinvention. However, the present invention is not limited to Juergenstype thin plate cells, and is applicable in general to lead acid cells.

The positive electrode 10 of the present invention includes a film 12coated on each side by active paste material 14. The film 12 ispreferably a lead-tin alloy, having about 1% tin. However, the amount oftin may be varied without departing from the scope of the invention. Forexample, films of up to 3% or more tin may be feasible, and films ofless than 0.5% tin or even substantially pure lead may be feasible.

The active paste material 14 preferably includes a mixture ofdispersant, sodium sulfate, sulfuric acid, lead oxide, tin sulfate, tinoxide, tin(II) salts or tin(IV) salts or combinations thereof. A contentof 0.3% tin sulfate by weight has been found to provide good results.Alternate embodiments of the invention substitute metallic tin for tinsulfate or tin oxide. It is possible that tin introduced via othercompounds may also provide acceptable results. Further, similarcompounds containing antimony, arsenic, germanium, indium, selenium orcombinations thereof in place of or in addition to tin may produceacceptable results.

Sulfuric acid is added into the bulk of the water. Lead oxide is addedfollowing the sulfuric acid addition which then reacts with the sulfuricacid to produce lead sulfate. When 1/3 of the total lead oxide isintroduced the sulfuric acid is nearly completely reacted. Tin sulfateis pre-dissolved in water. The tin ion and sulfate ion, now resident inthe water, are added to the mix after 2/3 of the lead oxide has beenintroduced. The remainder of the lead oxide is added to complete the mixoperation. All components are weighed out as a percentage of the totalamount of lead oxide which is to be converted to positive paste: 1.67%water in pre-mix with tin sulfate, 0.27% tin sulfate, 17.43% water forprimary mixing, and 0.24% 1.320 s.g. sulfuric acid. Positive paste isapplied onto a 2" wide, 15.125" length foil covering an area 1.9" wideby 15.125" in length on both sides with a target applied active materialweight of 11.1 grams, for 0.008" thickness.

It has been found that in sulfated pastes (those to which sulfuric acidhas been added) it is important that the tin-containing compound beintroduced to the paste after the sulfuric acid. Introducing thetin-containing compound prior to the sulfuric acid results in a muchpoorer performing cell. In the case of unsulfated pastes (those to whichsulfuric acid has not been added) the sequence appears not to becritical.

The design and construction of Juergens-type thin metal film cells isfurther taught in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,368,961 and 5,198,313 (with respectto the end connectors for such cells), the contents of which are herebyincorporated by reference.

FIGS. 1-6 comparatively illustrate the performance of Juergens-type thinmetal film cells according to the present invention and Juergens-typethin metal film cells not having any tin additives in the paste. Thecapacity of the cells (in amp hours) are plotted as a function of thenumber of times that the cell is cycled (i.e., discharged andrecharged). In these experiments, the discharges were at the 8C rate andthe depth of discharge was 100%. The number of cycles multiplied by theamp hours obtained for each cycle yields the total useable capacity ofthe cell. Cycling is not continued after the amp hours of a cell fallsbelow a nominal percentage of the initial amp hours of the cell,typically 80% or 50%.

FIGS. 1-3 illustrate cycle performance of Juergens-type thin metal filmcells having positive films including 1% tin, and positive active pasteincluding 0.3% tin sulfate. The batteries tested in FIGS. 1-3 allachieved over 440 cycles of at least 80% of initial amp hour values, andachieved over 740 cycles of at least 50% of initial amp hour values.

FIGS. 4-6 illustrate cells similar to the cells of FIGS. 1-3, exceptthat tin sulfate has not been added to the active paste. The cells ofFIG. 6 all reached less than 170 cycles at 80% of initial amp hours, andless than 210 cycles at 50% of initial amp hours.

As previously noted, the positive electrode may also contain tin as partof a lead/tin alloy. It is believed that the optimum amount of tin inthe lead/tin alloy of the positive electrode is on the order of 1%. Thisfigure is based on experiments conducted on cells not having any tin inthe paste, which are described below, but it is believed that cells withtin in the paste will produce similar results in this regard.

The self discharge performance of cells having varying amounts of tin inlead/tin alloy electrodes is shown in FIGS. 8-11. All data in these fourgraphs are from cells with paste material not having any tin compounds.The vertical axis on each graph shows open cell voltage in volts, andthe horizontal axis shows the number of elapsed days since formation.

FIG. 8 shows the self discharge of a set of 16 test samples havingpositive electrodes of a lead/tin alloy with approximately 1% tin byweight. The test samples are labeled "Series 1, Series 2 . . . ." Thecells for which the data of FIG. 8 was collected were stored at roomtemperature. It can be seen that there is no appreciable drop-off inopen circuit voltage for any of the test samples over a storage periodof 180 days.

FIG. 9 shows the self discharge of 4 test samples stored at roomtemperature over a period of 180 days, where the test samples hadpositive electrodes of lead/tin alloys with approximately 3% tin. Thusthe pertinent distinction between the cells of FIG. 8 and the cells ofFIG. 9 was the tin content of the positive electrodes; the cells of FIG.8 had 1% tin while the cells of FIG. 9 had 3% tin. It can be seen fromthe data of FIG. 9 that cells with 3% tin in the positive electrode hadgreater self discharge than the cells of FIG. 8 with 1% tin in thepositive electrode. In particular, the open circuit voltage droppedabruptly at 100 to 140 days of storage. Although these cells did nothave tin in the paste, these results imply that the positive electrodein cells having SnSO₄ paste material in accordance with the presentinvention should also be on the order of 1% tin rather than 3% tin.

The graphs of FIGS. 10 and 11 illustrate this same point through anotherset of tests. FIG. 10 shows the self discharge of a set of three testsamples over a period of 105 days at an elevated temperature of 50° C.It is believed that this elevated temperature accelerates the selfdischarge of lead acid cells by a factor of about 6. It can be seen thateven at this elevated temperature the test samples did not exhibit anyabrupt drop-off in open circuit voltage over a period of 105 days. Thissuggests that the cells would not exhibit abrupt drop-off in opencircuit voltage at room temperature over a period in excess of 600 days.This is well beyond the expected storage life of commercial lead-acidcells.

FIG. 11 shows that the self discharge performance is less favorable ifthe positive electrodes contain 3% rather than 1% tin. The three testsamples of FIG. 11 are essentially the same as those of FIG. 10, exceptthat the positive electrode of the FIG. 11 cells is approximately 3%tin. It can be seen that the open circuit voltage of the FIG. 11 cellsdrops off abruptly at 40 to 60 days under 50° C. storage.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of manufacturing a lead acidelectrochemical cell, comprising: preparing an unsulfatedelectrochemically active material to which has been added an oxide oflead and a semiconductor; coating said electrochemically active materialonto a first electrode of a first polarity; arranging said firstelectrode adjacent to a second electrode of a polarity opposite thefirst electrode, the first electrode and second electrode beingseparated by a separator; and containing said first electrode, secondelectrode and separator in a container.
 2. The method of claim 1,wherein said semiconductor contains tin and is selected from the groupconsisting of SnSO₄, SnO, metallic tin, a tin(II) salt and a tin(IV)salt.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein said semiconductor includesSnSO₄.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein said electrochemically activematerial is approximately 0.001 to 5% SnSO₄ by weight.
 5. The method ofclaim 4, wherein said electrochemically active material is approximately0.1 to 1% SnSO₄ by weight.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein saidelectrochemically active material is approximately 0.3% SnSO₄ by weight.7. The method of claim 1, wherein said first electrode includes amaterial selected from the group consisting of substantially pure leadand a lead/tin alloy.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein said firstelectrode is less than 3% tin by weight.
 9. The method of claim 8,wherein said first electrode is approximately 0.5 to 1.5% tin by weight.10. The method of claim 1, wherein said semiconductor is selected fromthe group consisting of tin, antimony, arsenic, germanium, indium,selenium, gallium, tellurium and combinations thereof.